To the Reader

...set forth, [it] shows; it lays open the hidden paths of motions, and has explained the nests of light and heat with such amazement from the Philosophers In the 17th century, "Philosophers" usually referred to natural scientists, that there was almost no one who did not rush with armed eyes Armed eyes: "armatis oculis," a common 17th-century metaphor for eyes aided by optical instruments like telescopes to contemplate the unusual portents of nature with the greatest effort. Here, onto the stage of heaven, have come forth—beyond the ancient ones, which were formerly indistinct in the nebulous stars—throngs of numerous stars throughout the whole circuit of the Galaxy The Milky Way; as well as the births of new stars in Cassiopeia, Ophiuchus original: "Serpentario," the Serpent-Bearer constellation, and Cygnus, differing in a wonderful manner in their nature, properties, shape, and diversity of colors; to say nothing, for now, of the variety of Comets, those dire omens for mortals. Here the Sun—than which the world has until now believed nothing to be clearer or more shining—appeared transformed by a certain wonderful variety of spots Sunspots: "macularum," the dark patches on the Sun observed by early telescopists and shadows; and, as if struggling with huge surgings of tides Ebullitions: "ebullitiones," bubbling or boiling up; here describing the turbulent solar surface, that most constant star of the World appeared subject to a perpetual succession of changes. Here the Moon presented herself on the stage, laden with mountains, lakes, seas, and islands; followed by Venus, who showed herself with a horned brow original: "corniculata fronte," referring to the discovery that Venus has phases like the Moon and, due to the roughness of her parts, not nearly so beautiful as the Ancients believed. Mercury, bright yet rough and divided into various phases, offered a wonderful sight; then Mars, fierce with a certain hunchbacked and blunt, not quite round shield original: "umbone," referring to the appearance of the planet's disk, and grim with a rust-colored spot and formidable with the belching of fire; then

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