INTRODUCTION.

it imparted, seems to have taken even the most advanced of these thinkers by surprise. Copernicus and Galileo, however, had already come into open conflict with the literal text of Scripture and the official pronouncements original: "dicta" of rigid religious doctrine original: "dogmatic theology" in the field of physical science; meanwhile, Bacon and Descartes had successfully asserted humanity's right to freedom of opinion in the realm of philosophy. Spinoza's work, consequently, however poorly it was received by professional theologians, appears to have found enough support original: "countenance" in the world of science and letters. Copernicus, Luther, Galileo, Bacon, Descartes, Leibniz, and, though last certainly not least, Spinoza—these are the mighty names to whom we owe the intellectual freedom we now enjoy. Spinoza is not the least in this illustrious list, we say, because—though he was behind original: "in arrear" our own great writers and activists from the time of King Charles I regarding political principles—as the true founder of the school of biblical criticism, he continues to influence the religious opinions of Europe to a greater degree, perhaps, than any other man of modern times.

In these our own days of freer individual thought and greater general enlightenment, when authority and tradition in matters of faith—no less than in subjects of science—are ignored by the truly educated in all classes of society, an English version of the Treatise original: "Tractatus" of Spinoza appears to be a need that ought to be supplied. In this favored land, we have long held a beneficial conviction regarding the clear advantages that come from the open discussion of political and social questions. However, in regard to subjects of faith and religion, it must be confessed that public opinion is less advanced. Many people still fear to involve themselves here; from the pulpit, we are anxiously cautioned against too much "curious inquiry" and told simply to believe. Nevertheless, and in spite of all advice to the contrary, mankind will inquire. Lately, there are unmistakable signs of greater freedom and of some progress in considering the "subject of subjects"—the relationship of man to his Creator. A ray of the light that has long illuminated the scholars of Germany and the North has at length broken in upon the stagnant theological atmo-