Albertus Magnus Philosophia (1496 Incunable)

...so it happens that an error occurs in the making, whether more or less improperly. From the error that occurs in those things that happen by design, a "sin of design" original: "peccatum propositi" — here "sin" means a failure or mistake in a planned action is caused; for example, if a grammarian should err in writing, he commits a fault. Similarly, if a doctor should err in administering a potion. However, from the error that occurs in those things that happen by nature, a "sin of nature" is caused. Hence Aristotle says in the second book of the Physics: Monsters original: "Monstra" — in medieval science, a "monster" refers to any biological birth that deviates from the natural norm, such as a deformity are made through the fault of that which exists for the sake of something. Just as because of an error of nature it happens that "ox-born" original: "bouiginas" and "viper-born" things are produced among animals, and "vine-born" and "olive-born" things among plants. Thus, for the present, let it be determined about the causes, what and how many they are: for they are four in number: namely, the material, formal, efficient, and final causes, about which Aristotle speaks in the second book of the Physics. He notes that three of these often coincide into one: namely, the form what a thing is, the end the purpose for which it is made, and the source of motion the efficient cause are often the same in species in these things.

Opinions on motion.

Since, as Aristotle says, Nature is the principle of motion, rest, and change, and having briefly spoken of the principles and causes of natural philosophy, it follows that we should speak of motion, rest, time, and place. First, therefore, it must be noted that among philosophers there were diverse opinions concerning motion. For some posited that motion exists, while others did not.

And of those who posited that motion does not exist, some did so for this reason: because it is impossible for two bodies to be in the same place, as Parmenides and Melissus original: "mellitus" — Melissus of Samos was a follower of Parmenides who argued that the universe is one and unchanging held. For they argued thus: either something moves, or nothing moves. If nothing moves, I have proven my point. If something moves, it must move either through a vacuum empty space or through a plenum full space. If it moves through a vacuum, then by the same reason that a vacuum would be in one place, it would be everywhere; therefore the whole universe would be a vacuum; therefore the whole would be nothing. If it moves through a plenum, then one body would already be inside another; therefore two bodies would be in the same place, which is impossible. Hence they said that there was only one continuous and immobile being. Aristotle, however, says that such people are not "physicists" natural philosophers because natural philosophers must assume that motion exists as a starting principle.

Others, however, said motion did not exist because of the infinity of space, as Zeno said. For he argued thus: if it is possible for motion to exist, let it be granted that before any body moves from one place to another, it is necessary that it passes through a part of the space first before it passes through the whole space; and then a part of that part; and so on to infinity, because there are infinite parts of space. But the infinite cannot be traversed; therefore there is no motion. But Aristotle solves this in the sixth book of the Physics and says that space can be considered in two ways: namely, in regard to "act" (its physical boundaries), or in regard to "potentiality" (its divisibility); and in this latter way it is called infinite because of the infinite number of parts it could be divided into. Among those, however, who said that motion exists: some said motion happens through a vacuum, and some through a plenum. Democritus and Leucippus original: "Eleu" said it happens through a vacuum...