Albertus Magnus Philosophia (1496 Incunable)

[Form] is divided just as matter is: first into the spiritual and the corporal. Spiritual is that which constitutes a spirit, or which exists in a spiritual thing, or even in a corporal thing in such a way that the whole [form] is in the whole [matter]. This refers to the "soul" or life-force, which medieval thinkers believed was present in every part of the body simultaneously, rather than being located in just one spot. Corporal is that which constitutes a body, or which exists in a corporal thing in such a way that it is greater in the larger part and smaller in the smaller part. Among these, some are natural and some are artificial. Natural is that which is in natural things, or whose principle is nature. Artificial is that which is in artificial things, or whose principle is art original: "ars" — meaning human skill or craft.. Likewise, among forms: some are universal, some are particular. Universal is that which is considered totally in its essence, so that it is not impressed upon any specific matter, such as "whiteness" The abstract concept of the color white.. Particular, however, is that which is individually designated in this specific subject, such as "this whiteness" The specific white color of a specific object.. Likewise, among particular things: some are incorruptible, such as the form of the heavens. Some are corruptible, such as the form of the elements and those things made from elements. Likewise, among forms: some are substantial, others are accidental. Substantial is that which, by its joining to matter, creates the "whatness" — that is, the essential being — such as "fire-ness" original: "igneitas" — the essential quality that makes fire be fire.. Accidental is that which, by its joining to matter, creates a "quality" rather than the "what," such as whiteness. Likewise, among forms: some are placed immediately in matter; others mediately.

mediate form

Placed immediately is the substantial form. Of those forms placed mediately in matter: some are placed mediately through a surface, which are extended according to the extension of the surface and have a "position" — that is, one part here and another elsewhere — such as whiteness or color. Hence, the first subject of color is the surface; and of the surface, the body; of the body, however, the primary matter, and it cannot be broken down further. Others, however, are not mediated through a surface; that is, when they do not have a physical position, such as "fatherhood" and "sonship" These are relational "forms" or categories that don't take up physical space. and things of this

opinions of the philosophers

sort. And note that, as Averroës A 12th-century Islamic philosopher whose commentaries on Aristotle were foundational to medieval European universities. says, there were three opinions among the ancient philosophers concerning natural forms. For some thought that forms came from the outside — that is, from a "Giver of Forms" — and that before being given, they existed outside of matter, separately placed in the stars, as the Platonists held. Others, however, thought that forms were inside matter in "act" already fully present but were hidden and insensible to us, as Anaxagoras held. Hence he said that "everything is mixed in everything." The third opinion is that of Aristotle, who posits that forms

the agent

exist in matter potentially, not in act, and they are brought out from potentiality into act by an external agent. Hence he says in the second book of On Generation and Corruption: that the "carrying" — that is, the approach of the sun — causes generation. And in the second book of the Physics, he says that a human generates a human from matter, as does the sun. Likewise, note that "form" is variously called form, species, ratio, and entelechy or act. It is called form insofar as it gives being to matter, or

form as cause

in comparison to matter. It is called species insofar as it is the principle of knowledge, or insofar as it is considered in itself. It is called ratio In this context, ratio means a "defining logic" or "proportion." insofar as it is the "end" or goal of nature, or insofar as it is proportionable to matter. It is called entelechy original: "endelechia" — a Greek term meaning the state of being complete or fully realized. or act insofar as it is opposed to "privation" The absence of a form.. Likewise, note that as Aristotle says in the second book of On Generation and Corruption: it belongs to matter to suffer To be acted upon or changed. and to be moved. To move and to act belongs to another power: namely, to the form. Whence that which entirely lacks [form]...

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