GIORDANO BRUNO

Of these, the most difficult of all to establish is the universal affirmative original: "problema universale affirmativum"; a statement asserting that all members of a group share a quality, such as "All humans are mortal." and it is the most easily overturned; for a universal is refuted whether it applies to no one, or if it does not apply to someone. Moreover, the fact that it does not apply to someone is proven in all [logical figures], but that it applies to 5 none is shown in two. Next to this in the difficulty of its construction is the universal negative A statement like "No humans are stones.", which is destroyed by the fact that it applies to either all or some. Particulars Statements about "some" members of a group., however, are refuted in only one way: the former The particular affirmative, "Some A is B." by "to all," and the latter The particular negative, "Some A is not B." by "to none." But because they are 10 found in more figures and modes, they are far more easily confirmed than universals.

A circular geometric diagram labeled "Figura complicationis trium figurarum". Inside a double-bordered circle, there are various points and intersecting lines. On the left side of the circle's circumference, three points are labeled 'A' (top, middle, and bottom). On the right side, three points are labeled 'C' (top, middle, and bottom). At the exact center of the circle is a point labeled 'B'. A horizontal line connects the top 'A' to the top 'C'. A horizontal line connects the bottom 'A' to the bottom 'C'. Radial lines connect the top 'A', bottom 'A', top 'C', and bottom 'C' to the center point 'B'. Additionally, two curved arcs connect the middle 'A' to 'B' and the middle 'C' to 'B'.

VII. Part.

Starting again, as if from another principle and heading, 15 once the two terms The "subject" and "predicate" of a logical proposition. of the problem have been set down, let it be considered...

2 establish original: "adstruitur" in edition G     10 universality original: "universalita" in edition P

Giordano Bruno (1548–1600), an Italian philosopher and memory expert; universal affirmative a statement claiming "all X are Y"; syllogism a three-part logical argument; figure of combination a diagram showing how different logical structures intersect; universal negative a statement claiming "no X are Y"; particulars statements claiming "some X are Y" or "some X are not Y".