The PREFACE.

...notice of these things, seeing that they too are inclined toward society Continuing from the previous page: Philo of Alexandria argues that humans should be ashamed if they do not value society as much as animals do.. To the same purpose is the statement of Nicetas Choniates original: "Nicetas Coniates"; a 12th-century Byzantine historian.: Nature herself has imprinted and ingrained in us a mind that easily consents and agrees with those of our own kind. Nor can I omit here that excellent saying of Seneca Seneca the Younger (c. 4 BC – 65 AD), a Roman Stoic philosopher.: "So that you may understand how desirable a thing it is in itself to have a thankful mind, and how hateful a thing ingratitude is, know that there is nothing that sooner dissolves and disconnects human society than this vice of unthankfulness. For what else provides our security, if not those mutual good offices we perform for one another? It is only through this commerce and exchange of courtesies that our lives are strongly guarded and fortified against all violent attacks. Taken individually, what are we but prey for all other creatures—so many sacrifices to appease the hunger or rage of ravenous beasts? No blood is so cheap, none so easily shed as ours. All other creatures are sufficiently guarded against violence; whatever is born wild and unsociable comes into the world armed. Only man comes naked and weak, having neither hoofs, horns, claws, nor teeth to make him appear terrifying to others. Nature has given him only two things to both strike others and defend himself: namely, Reason and Society. By these, he who is weakest on his own becomes lord and master of all. It is society that gives him dominion over all other creatures; it is society that transfers empires from one nation to another, extending itself even over the seas. It is society that eases the violence of diseases, yields comfort to old age, and soothes grief and pain. It makes us strong, valiant—even invincible—insofar as we may lawfully seek its help even against Fortune herself. Take this away, and you break apart that unity between mankind by which our lives are sustained. And it is certainly taken away if ingratitude is not hateful in itself." Thus far, Seneca.

Now this very preservation of society, as it is agreeable to human understanding (though only simply expressed here), is the foundation of that which is properly called Right In this context, "Right" refers to Ius, the basis of Law and Justice.. From this arises our practice of abstaining from what belongs to another, and our restoring of what we have taken, along with any profits we have made from it. It also includes our obligation to keep our promises, our making amends for damages done to others through our own fault, and the deserving of punishment among men. For Justice is described by Porphyry Porphyry of Tyre (c. 234 – c. 305 AD), a Neoplatonist philosopher. in this way: To abstain from what belongs to others, and not to harm those who are harmless. original Latin: "Ut abstineretur alienis, neque noceatur non nocentibus"

From this definition of the word Right, there flows another of a larger extent. For seeing that man, above all other living beings, possesses not only the praiseworthy faculty for society already described, but also the judgment to discern...