History of All Cloven-Hoofed Quadrupeds

s. Hist. 1.
Talus.

...bone, even that Indian ass (armed with a single horn in the middle of its forehead) alone among the solid-hoofed kind possesses. The pig is ambiguous (sometimes solid-hoofed, other times cloven-hoofed), for which reason it also lacks a proper talus. A great many from the number of cloven-hoofed animals have a talus. But indeed, no many-toed animal has yet been known to have a talus of this kind, just as it is certain that even man does not have one. But in the lynx there is something similar to a half-talus; in the lion, however, it is twisted into a curve, such as they depict. Indeed, all those to which a talus has been given possess it in their hind legs, so that when standing erect in the hock, its prone part looks outward and its supine part inward; and those parts which are called the "bellies" are placed facing each other on the inside, and they have a ridge, and bear two "horns," gathering into a circle at their mutual inflection, as in the bonasus. And elsewhere again: The feet of quadrupeds differ among themselves; for in some they are solid, in others cloven, in others many-toed. They are solid in those for whom, in proportion to the size of their body and their share of earthy material, the matter has withdrawn into the nature of a nail instead of a horn or a tooth. But indeed, from that abundance, one nail—namely, a hoof—coalesces instead of several. For that reason they also lack a talus (as I might say for the most part), and also because if a talus were present, the hind legs would be flexed with greater difficulty. For those parts which consist of single angles open and close more quickly than those which consist of several. But the talus, which is like a bolt, is inserted into these two as if it were a foreign limb, bringing weight indeed, but making the step more secure. Hence it is that even those which have a talus possess it not in the front, but only in the hind legs, since those which lead ought to be lighter and more flexible, while it is fitting that the hind ones be firmer and more taut. For resisting and for delivering a more vehement strike, they are more conveniently constituted in this way. This genus of animals is accustomed to use its hind legs in such a manner. It is certain that cloven-hoofed animals have a talus: for in them the hind parts are fuller. And since they have a talus, they cannot be solid-hoofed, as if the bone which is missing from the foot remains in the hock. Many-toed animals do not have a talus. For if they did, they would not be many-toed, but would be split only as far as the width the talus occupied. Therefore, those that have a talus are for the most part cloven-hoofed.

Suet.
3. de par. 5.

Why cloven-hoofed horned animals have suet rather than lard, and how these types of fat differ from each other, the same Philosopher has elsewhere most clearly taught us: Suet (he says) and lard (pimele and stear) differ from each other by reason of the blood. For each of them is blood concocted for the goodness of nourishment, and it consists of that which is not consumed into the flesh of the animal, but is endowed with the goodness of concoction and nutriment. Their greasiness indicates this, since grease is common among moist things to both fire and air; for which reason none of those which lack blood has either lard or suet, since blood is absent. But those whose blood is thicker, these have suet rather than lard; for suet is earthy. Whence it happens that it is congealed in the manner of fibrous blood, both the fat itself and broth of that kind, since it contains little water and much earth. For this reason, those which are not toothed in both jaws, but are horned, these have suet. It is clear that their nature is filled with an element of this kind from the fact that they bear horns and possess tali, all of which are by nature dry and earthy. But indeed, the genus toothed in both jaws, and devoid of horns, and many-toed, has lard in place of suet, which does not congeal, nor is it broken by any dryness, because its nature is less earthy. Thus far the Philosopher; but also in the following chapter he says that suet

Marrow.
3. de par. 12.
Spleen.

differs from lard, and likewise that the marrow of the bones in horned animals bears the appearance of suet, while in those toothed in both jaws and many-toed it resembles lard, for the reason just cited. The horned animals, by the same witness, have a round spleen, as do goats, sheep, and all the rest; unless some, by reason of their size, have it increased in length, as do oxen. But in all many-toed animals it is elongated, as in man and the dog. In solid-hoofed animals, however, it holds a middle

4. de par. 14.
Intestines.
Uteri.

position and is of a mixed nature. For on one side it is broad, and on the other narrow, as in the horse, mule, and ass. The intestines, as he says elsewhere, are all roomier than in others, by reason of their fodder, so that they may process the food they take in while it is unconcocted. Concerning the uterus, he writes thus after the explanation of its position: Furthermore, there is a difference in uteri, in that horned animals, and those toothed on one side, have acetabula in the uterus while they carry offspring; but all fertile animals toothed on both sides and provided with feet have a smooth uterus, and the offspring itself adheres to the uterus, not to acetabula.

4. de par. 10.
Mammae.

Finally, they have mammae not in the same place as others, as he himself noted in these words: Those which have a solid hoof or horns, and few offspring in number, these have mammae between the thighs, and these two in number; but those which have numerous offspring and are many-toed, these bear either more along the belly in a double row on each side, as pigs and dogs do, or only two in the middle of the belly, as the Lion, the cause of which is not because it breeds very sparingly (for it sometimes produces more than two), but because it is less abundant in milk. For the food, which it takes rarely since it is carnivorous, it consumes into its body. The Elephant has only two, and those under the shoulders. But those which are not many-toed, but are flat-footed or horned, these have mammae between the thighs, as the mare, the she-ass, and the camel. For these bring forth single young, and the foot is solid in the horse and ass, and cloven in the camel. The hind, the goat, the cow, and the rest of the same genus also bear mammae in the same place. The cause of this is that these take the increments of their body toward the upper parts. Therefore, where there is a confluence and abundance of the excrementitious blood—which place is certainly below, and around the exits of the flowing matter—there the mammae have been placed by nature. For from that part where the movement of the nutriment is driven, from there also can nutriment be taken, etc. Concerning the position of the mammae in many-toed animals, it will be discussed in its proper place.