THE SECOND VOLUME.

The Crusades—The Church replaced the civil government when the latter proved inefficient—The Truce of God A medieval movement by the Catholic Church to limit private warfare between feudal lords.—The contest between royal and ecclesiastical power—A comparison of the Crusades and the religious wars shows the declining influence of theology—The alliances of Francis I and Cardinal Richelieu These French leaders often prioritized national interests over religious alliances, even partnering with non-Catholic powers.—The end of the religious wars—The Inquisition separates religious questions from politics—A sketch of its constitution and progress—The doctrine that the magistrate The civil government or secular authority. is incapable of deciding religious questions (which is the basis of modern tolerance) was first advocated in favor of the Inquisition—Collisions with civil power—The difficulty of defining ecclesiastical church-related offenses—The unpopularity attached to the Inquisition—The decline of persecution—The suppression of heretical books still continues—Its prevalence in the early Church—Reuchlin Johann Reuchlin, a German humanist who defended Jewish texts from destruction.—The system of religious disabilities Legal restrictions placed on people because of their religious beliefs. is next abolished—The change in France effected in 1830—The change in England accelerated by Irish policy—The Irish Parliament—The clergy disappear from offices of power—A review of the steps of secularization—The decline of the temporal power The status of the Pope as a political ruler of territory, distinct from his spiritual authority. of the Pope—Political life acts powerfully on theological habits—It diminishes the sense of the importance of theology—It leads to a neglect of general principles—The difference between the political and philosophical viewpoints—The injurious effects now resulting from the dominance of political modes of thought—The important influence of political life in promoting a true method of inquiry—Three phases of the conflict between the sectarian and the judicial spirit in politics—The secularization of the basis of authority—Passive obedience The doctrine that subjects must obey their rulers unconditionally and never resist by force.—According to the Church Fathers, all rebellion is sinful—Considering the anarchy and "worship of force" that was then general, this teaching was favorable to liberty—The election of bishops by universal suffrage—The conflict between the Pope and kings was favorable to liberty—The power of deposition The claim that the Pope could strip a king of his right to rule.—Moral authority necessarily resided with the Pope—Public penance—The power of dispensation The Church's authority to grant exemptions from its laws or from oaths of loyalty.—Scholasticism The system of theology and philosophy taught in medieval European universities. favorable to liberty—St. Thomas Aquinas—The doctrine of the "mediate" character of the Divine Right of Kings The theory that kings receive their authority from God, but only through the consent or mediation of the people.—The Reformation produces a variety of interests and therefore of political opinions—The Papal party insists on the right of deposition—The works of Bellarmine and Suarez Robert Bellarmine and Francisco Suárez, prominent Jesuit theologians. burned at Paris—The Jesuits proclaim the "Social Contract"—Suarez's On Faith original: "de Fide"—Mariana's On the King original: "de Rege"—Tyrannicide The act of killing a tyrant. fascinates an early civilization—Its importance in the history of liberal opinions—First maintained unequivocally by Jean Petit A theologian who justified the assassination of the Duke of Orléans in 1407.—Advocated by Grévin, Toletus, Sa, Molina, Ayala, and Kellerus—The murder of Henry III The French king assassinated in 1589. praised in the League and by the Pope—Political assassination approved among Protestants—But the Jesuits were its special advocates—Great services of the Jesuits to liberalism—The Gallican Church The Catholic Church in France, which sought to maintain a degree of independence from the Pope's political control. represented despotic power.