History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe, Vol. II

...over French society—dress, theater, gardens—the stream of self-sacrifice passing from theology to politics—the democratic ideal consists of two parts—the doctrine of nationalities—theories of international arrangements, by Hildebrand original: "Hildebrand" refers to Pope Gregory VII (c. 1015–1085), who asserted the supreme authority of the papacy over secular rulers., Dante, Grotius Hugo Grotius (1583–1645), a Dutch jurist who established the foundations of international law based on natural law., and diplomacy—causes that made it possible in the nineteenth century—synthesis of the moral principles of Christianity and paganism—democracy as an aspect of the Christian spirit PAGE 106

CHAPTER VI.

THE INDUSTRIAL HISTORY OF RATIONALISM.

The industrial system of antiquity rested upon slavery—effects of this institution on national character—decline of industry in Rome—comparison between ancient and modern slavery—atrocious excesses that the Empire reached—Christianity undertook the abolition of slavery—first movement in favor of the slaves due to Seneca Lucius Annaeus Seneca (c. 4 BC–AD 65), a Stoic philosopher whose writings emphasized the common humanity of slaves. and his followers—invasion of barbarians favorable to slaves—but Christianity was the most efficient opponent of the evil—review of the measures for abolishing slavery—and for alleviating the condition of those who still continued enslaved—Anglo-Saxon measures—services of the Church Fathers and the Benedictines in making labor honorable—the ferocity of manners corrected by the creation of charity—the long period that passed before the pre-eminent services of Christianity were appreciated in this respect—great development of self-sacrifice—deficiency of the industrial theory of the Church—long continuation of serfdom—the emancipation of the towns begins modern industrial history—effects of the Crusades on industry—the system of corporations Original: "Corporations" refers to the medieval guilds and trade associations. was politically useful though economically bad—points of contact between industrial and theological enterprises—the first ground of collision was usury The practice of lending money at interest, which the Church historically condemned as a sin.—the principles that regulate interest were altogether unknown to the ancients—position of moneylenders in Greece and Gaul—and in the Roman Empire—the early and medieval Church condemned all interest—on the twofold ground of natural law and authority—moneylending first monopolized by Jews—the rise of the industrial republics of Italy makes it popular among Christians—Council of the Lateran—the Reformation shakes the old superstition—Saumaise Claude Saumaise (1588–1653), a French scholar whose work defended the legality of charging interest on loans.—change in the meaning of the word "usury" in the sixteenth century—casuistry The use of clever but unsound reasoning, especially in relation to moral questions; here, it refers to the complex legal and theological arguments used to bypass usury bans. of the Jesuits—decree of Benedict XIV Pope Benedict XIV (reigned 1740–1758), whose encyclical Vix Pervenit addressed the issue of interest and usury.—laws upon usury based on theological grounds disappear—the economic question discussed by Locke, Adam Smith, Hume, Turgot, and Bentham—the Russian Raskol The "Old Believers" who broke away from the Russian Orthodox Church in the 17th century; they maintained very conservative views on many social and economic issues. the last representative of the ancient doctrine—importance of this controversy in producing