GHANA ACCORDING TO EDRISSI AND YAKOUT

of two cities straddling "the river" and that its king possessed "on the bank of the Nile" a fortified castle, built in 1116, adorned with sculptures and paintings, and equipped with glass windows! This "river" or "Nile" can only be the Niger, according to the totality of Edrissi's indications, and the situation he gives to Ghana could only correspond to that of Sansanding. But since, on the other hand, the same author places Gaoga (Gao) to the East of Ghana—which is only accurate if Ghana was located where Bekri places it—and to the South of Koukaoua (Kouka)—which constitutes an inexcusable error—and since he commits a host of confusions that are easy to identify, we must be strongly wary of his assertions. The description of the luxurious palace of the king of Ghana would, moreover, be enough to put us on our guard.

We must not forget, furthermore, that at the time of Edrissi, Ghana had already greatly diminished in importance, having been sacked toward the end of the previous century by the Almoravids and having lost a good part of its population. It could no longer have been a well-stocked commercial center, and Edrissi was undoubtedly not informed about this city, as Bekri had been, by people who had been there themselves. This circumstance removes much of the value from an account that only reproduces, more or less accurately, poorly understood passages from earlier works. It could also be that between the era of Bekri and that of Edrissi, a new city was founded on the Niger, to which the name Ghana was also given. The fact is frequent in the Sudan of burgeoning localities being given the name of their founders' homeland, and it can easily lead to confusion. However, what Edrissi says about the commercial situation of his Ghana corresponds well to what Ibn-Haoukal and Bekri had taught us.

Yakout (end of the 12th century and beginning of the 13th), although slightly later than Edrissi, deserves more credit, for he generally drew only from good sources for the materials of his geographical dictionary.

"Ghana," he tells us, "is a large city located at the southern extremity of the Maghreb and contiguous to the land of the Negroes. It is the meeting place for merchants who, from this city, penetrate into the deserts leading to the