On the Motion and Measurement of Water

CENTERED TEXT: ## LEONARDO DA VINCI

Hollows original: "Grotte"; here referring to the cavities or undercuts carved into the side of a riverbank are caves made in the banks of rivers by the current of the rivers; these have a length following the line of the water's course; they have some depth, and even push beneath the foundation of the bank, and their shape tapers off toward the ends of their length.

Tempests original: "Procelle" are water storms.

Gravels are created by the course of rivers, and in the end are consumed worn down into smaller particles.

Gravels are smaller the closer the river that generates them is to the pelago the sea or a deep basin.

Sand is extremely minute gravel.

Stones original: "sassi"; can refer to rocks or large pebbles are composed by the courses of the rivers, and they are arranged in layers, or rather in steps, according to the discharge of the turbulence carried by the course of the rivers.

Stones are not found where there was never a sea or a lake.

The rubbing original: "confregazione" of stones against one another in the courses of rivers wears away the angles of the stones explaining why river stones are rounded.

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CHAPTER II.

Submerging is understood as things that go beneath the waters. Intersection of water occurs when one river cuts across another. Rebounding, circulation, revolution, turning over, swirling, leaping back, submerging, surging, declining, elevation, hollowing, consuming, impact, ruining, colliding, rubbing, waving, furrowing, boiling, falling back, slowing, gushing, pouring, overturning, re-plunging, meandering, currents, murmurs, noises, gorging back, ebb and flow, ruins, shatterings, abyss, caverns, swirling, precipices, overflowing, tumults, confusions, clashing, boilings, submergence of surface waves, slowing, breaking, dividing, opening, swiftness, vehemence, fury, impetuosity, mixed convergence, jolting, and the erosion of banks.

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CHAPTER III.

Water is the second least heavy among the four elements according to the classical science of Leonardo's time: earth, water, air, and fire, and of the second highest mobility; this never has rest until it joins with its maritime element, where, if not disturbed by winds, it becomes stable.