DEFENSE FOR GALILEO.

...we have demonstrated in the philosophy of the saints. I omit the fact that he Aristotle places the sun immediately above the moon; which Saint Thomas Thomas Aquinas, the most influential medieval theologian. and the followers of Aristotle himself teach to be false. Aristotle also confesses that he knows nothing of celestial things; and he commits the task of investigating to those stronger in this science, as is clear in the 12th book of his Metaphysics. Whatever he posits there, he confesses to have received from Callippus and Eudoxus Ancient Greek astronomers who proposed systems of concentric spheres.; nor did he add anything else except the "revolving orbs," which only multiply the struggles among the angels Campanella refers to the "intelligences" or angels thought to move the celestial spheres; the complexity of Aristotle's system made their task seem contradictory.. I omit the impieties that follow from the "fifth essence" quintessence The idea that the heavens are made of a perfect, unchanging element different from the four earthly elements. and the eternity of the heavens' motion. For Saint Thomas and the Christian commentators easily declare this: and Thomas responds with reasons in the 10th lecture, where he teaches that Aristotle held the eternity of motion there very firmly, and not merely as a debated problem. Otherwise, God is not granted to him; hence he makes us out to be atheists because we deny the eternity of motion—and Saint Thomas responds to the contrary. Therefore, I cannot marvel enough at certain petty theologians theologastros A derogatory term for mediocre or narrow-minded theologians. who set the writings of Aristotle as the boundary for the genius of men.

    That even Ptolemy did not reach the truth is shown by new phenomena Such as the "New Stars" or supernovae of 1572 and 1604, which proved the heavens could change. for which no explanation can be given through his dogmas, nor is the discord among celestial movements removed. I omit the errors detected by Copernicus in mathematics—namely, that regular motion would occur in a sphere around a center other than its own, and other things. Because of this, Thebit Thabit ibn Qurra, a 9th-century mathematician. and King Alfonso Alfonso X of Castile, who commissioned the Alfonsine astronomical tables. discovered librations and new spheres. But Copernicus demonstrates that even these men were deceived, and he returns to the dogmas of the ancient Pythagoreans, from which the explanations of the appearances are better rendered. Galileo, however, beyond all these things, has detected new planets, and systems, and unknown attributes of the heavens. Therefore, those who think that what was revealed by Aristotle regarding the heavens is sufficient are most ignorantly insane; for he said nothing of his own, as he himself confesses, and he commands others to investigate further; and his successors, still uncertain, continue to clash with one another.

APPENDIX.

    But someone will say: "If a doctrine concerning the heavens cannot be provided that matches their dignity and truth, as Job says, then it is better to remain silent rather than to inquire further in vain." I say this is true, but this further inquiry does not make a man a heretic, as they wish, but perhaps only a vain man. Yet that further investigation is not vain is taught by the natural desire to always learn more. Likewise, Saint Bernard in books 4 and 5 of On Consideration to Eugene says: “Although what God is may not be found, yet He is always sought most fruitfully.” original: "Quamuis, inquit, quid sit Deus non inueniatur, tamē fructuosissime semper quaeritur." Moreover, study in celestial things is for the sake of God, whom we are always commanded to investigate. For although we do not "touch" God perfectly—as Paul said to the Athenians Referring to Acts 17:27. regarding the God we ought to seek—yet we always find something more, through which we are gradually made more like the divine. And it is better (he says...