CONTENTS

I. Reasoning ...................... 9
II. The Process of Reasoning...... 17
III. The Concept A mental representation or general idea of a category of things. ................... 25
IV. The Use of Concepts............ 37
V. Concepts and Images .......... 48
VI. Terms The specific words used to express concepts within a logical statement. .......................... 56
VII. The Meaning of Terms.......... 73
VIII. Judgments The mental process of comparing two concepts to determine their relationship. ..................... 82
IX. Propositions Formal statements that express a judgment in words, asserting that something is or is not true. ................... 90
X. Immediate Reasoning .......... 99
XI. Inductive Reasoning A method of reasoning that moves from specific observations to broader generalizations. ........... 107
XII. Reasoning by Induction......... 116
XIII. Theory and Hypotheses ........ 125
XIV. Making and Testing Hypotheses 132
XV. Deductive Reasoning A method of reasoning that moves from general principles to a specific, necessary conclusion. ........... 144
XVI. The Syllogism A structured logical argument consisting of two premises and a conclusion, such as: "All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal." ................. 156
XVII. Varieties of Syllogisms ....... 167
XVIII. Reasoning by Analogy......... 179
XIX. Fallacies Common errors or deceptive flaws in reasoning that lead to invalid conclusions. ...................... 186