Mirror of History

Imperial Power

Ornamental initial P with floral/foliate patterns.Royal power and kingly authority were introduced not only by the force of nature for the public utility, but also through our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, the Son of God, in whose hand are all the kingdoms of the world. This is found to be proven both by word and by deed: for He willed to be born when the whole world was being enrolled, and He submitted to the census of Augustus Caesar; nor content with this, He even ordered tribute to be given for Himself and for Peter. Also, when asked whether it was lawful to give tribute to Caesar, having seen the coin, He said: "Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, and unto God the things that are God’s." Hence the blessed Ambrose says: "If the Emperor seeks tribute, we do not deny that the lands of the Church shall pay it." Thereupon Justinian Caesar asserted that the Empire was delivered to him by the heavenly majesty. For just as in spiritual matters the individual patriarchs, primates, and other pontiffs and prelates are subject to the Roman Pontiff—although at times the Greeks have denied this, and even now the treacherous race of the Hussites may reject it—so also it is clear that all temporal persons whatsoever are subject to the Roman Prince.

It was therefore established, as is noted in what follows, as if upon the firmest columns, for the purpose of choosing an Emperor. For the weakness of the Empire and the variety of fortune having been recognized, it was intended that the supreme power should remain longer among the Germans, and that he should preside over others who excelled the rest in virtue and dignity. Gregory V, the Supreme Pontiff, brought back a decree—with Otto not refusing—concerning the election of the Emperor, which we see observed even to our own times: namely, that it is permitted to the Germans alone to choose the princes. He who is called Caesar and King of the Romans would then finally be held as Emperor and Augustus if the Pontiff should confirm him. And since the authority of the canons says that the Emperor excels those in temporal matters who receive temporalities from him, who does not see that both peoples and all princes receive temporalities from the Emperor, who is the lord of the world, and therefore owe him obedience? Indeed, although some may deny that they obey the Roman Empire, yet after the monarchy of Augustus Octavian, no one has assumed such madness that he dared to call himself the lord of the world and prince of the globe under any title other than that of the Roman King.

Furthermore, let us weigh the opinion of those who assert themselves to be endowed with such liberty that they are held to the Empire in nothing at all. They say they possess a certain exemption, although it would be better to meet the insolence of such men with arms rather than laws, so that they might know themselves to be subject by the same right by which they think themselves exempt. Nevertheless, it is pleasing to write something on this matter. Surely all who deny themselves to be under the yoke of the Empire assert that they are affected either by privilege or by some virtue. That they have received a privilege either by the benefit of the Empire or from elsewhere needs no refutation. For since the Roman Empire is so elevated above all mortals in temporal affairs, it is a manifest point of law that there is no one who can bring prejudice against it. It is certain that such privileges which take away supreme power are not valid. For from this, frequent discords are born, manifold robberies occur, and slaughters without number are committed; once peace is disturbed, wars rage here and there, with no one existing who, being greater in the order of law, can impose a limit on disputes. But if we lived under one head, if all followed one obedience, if we recognized only one supreme prince in temporal matters, peace would flourish everywhere on earth, and all would enjoy the best and sweet concord.

A manifest sign of this thing is that from the beginning of the nascent world until this age, we read that there was never universal peace except when the eye of the whole world was directed toward one Augustus Caesar, after the fashion of the heavenly kingdom. Although this happened then out of reverence for Christ our Redeemer, who put on our human form, it ought nevertheless to suffice that the divine Maker of the world showed this way of maintaining peace when the world was ruled under one prince. It is clear, therefore, that privileges which run counter to monarchical rule—from whatever power they may come—do not have force. And these must be quashed not only by a successor but also by the very one who granted them. For it does not befit a prince to tolerate those things which tend toward the subversion of the Empire. But some say they have merited this privilege by their own virtues, even if the authority of the Empire did not intervene; for they say they have claimed provinces by their own arms and their own blood, which were occupied either by barbarians or by enemies of the Christian name, and did not recognize the Roman Empire. How ridiculous and unjust this is may be seen from the above. For public utility is always greater than private, nor must it be allowed that any power be erected similar to the Empire, as would be the case in those exempt who would admit no superior; such a thing shatters the sinews of monarchical dignity, creates a schism under the Empire, and destroys all concord of human society.

We do not, however, for that reason indicate that the power of kings and other princes is not great, but we say that they are under the Empire. We assert that their correction, when they become tyrants, pertains to the Roman Prince; that the causes of kings are to be referred to Caesar; that all are held to obey the Emperor for the common safety; to come when called to war; to contribute expenses; to send aid; to provide passage; to bestow provisions; and to shun nothing that the Caesarean majesty shall enjoin, so that they may render to their lord the Emperor the same obedience they exact from their own subjects.

The Roman Empire having been transferred to the Germans, so that it might stand founded and strengthened with more solid firmness, it was established upon four columns: namely, four dukes, four marquises, four landgraves, four burgraves, four counts, four barons, four freemen, four knights; four cities, four vills, and four peasants.

¶ The Institution of the Electors of the Empire.

On the decree concerning the election of the Emperor.

Ornamental initial S with foliate patterns.Gregory V made the decree concerning the election of the Emperor; having been restored to Rome in the eleventh month before he died, he took the sharpest vengeance for the injury received from the Romans. For when Otto III had been created Emperor by succession, though not without difficulty, the same Pontiff, born of the same nation, recognizing the weakness of the Empire and the mutability of fortune, so that the supreme majesty of the Empire might remain longer among the Germans, brought forth a statute in a convened synod concerning the choosing of the Emperor: that it should be permitted to the Germans alone (who were thereafter called Electors) to choose the prince. Which decree we see observed until now for over four hundred years: that in the future the Empire should not be conducted by blood succession, but that the Emperor should be chosen by the German peers alone, together with the King of Bohemia. He who is then called Caesar and King of the Romans, if he be crowned by the Roman Pontiff, is called Emperor Augustus. Concerning which confirmation, it is held more fully in Extra, de electione, c. Venerabilem.

And these are the Electors: the Archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne; and the Marquis of Brandenburg, the Count Palatine, the Duke of Saxony, and the King of Bohemia. Moreover, the offices are distinct among them, so that the first three are Chancellors: the first of Germany, the second of Gaul, the third of Italy. And the Marquis of Brandenburg is the Chamberlain. The Count Palatine is the Steward. The Duke of the Saxons is the Sword-bearer. Let the King of Bohemia be the Cup-bearer, whom they say was added to these to remove the discords of the Electors. Concerning this, certain men have written: "These are the officials: Mainz, Trier, Cologne; let each of these be a Chancellor of the Empire. Then the Palatine is Steward; the Duke the Sword-bearer. The Marquis is set over the Chamber; the Bohemian is Cup-bearer. These establish the King, and keep the law in order, and they create for all the supreme head of all things throughout the ages." We find that the year in which this decree was made was the first or (as others write) the second above the one-thousandth year of Christian salvation.

¶ The Method of Electing the Emperor.

Concerning the manner and method

Ornamental initial Q with foliate patterns.of choosing a new King by the seven Prince-Electors of the Roman Empire, and their conduct and summons, and how they are held to be present in the city of Frankfurt near the Main, and what things are to be carried out and in what order, the Golden Bull most clearly teaches, which Charles IV, Emperor of the Romans, issued in a solemn Diet at Nuremberg in the year 1356. Having been elected, he is thereafter called Caesar and King of the Romans; then finally he is held as Emperor and Augustus if the Roman Pontiff confirms him. For our Emperors, when they are elected, are called Kings of the Romans before their consecration and coronation, as if the name of Emperors were to be esteemed more than that of Kings.

But indeed, the ancient Romans, after the expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus on account of their hatred of kings, utterly abolished the royal name, establishing by a decree of the Senate that no one thereafter should be permitted to be King in the city. Many Emperors, for the sake of honor, were so called for many years after affairs had been conducted well and fortunately against enemies. For there were three grades of the greater dignities among the Romans (of whose prince we speak): King, Dictator, and Emperor. Of these, the supreme power of all was the King. After the King, the second place of dignity was the Dictatorship; after the Dictatorship, the Empire follows in the third grade. Julius Caesar, however, when he had often been called Emperor by the army after a victory was won, usurped the name not of Emperors or Kings, but of Dictator; such hatred had the name of King attracted in the city. But when he desired the name of King and feared the indignation of the people, having set out an expedition against the Parthians and asserting it to be contained in the Sibylline books that the Parthians could not be overcome except by a King, he arranged to be called King. This provided the conspirators with the cause for hastening his death.

Empire, moreover, is the authority committed over arms and armies for protecting and increasing the commonwealth. But since that ancient custom has vanished entirely, and has departed not only from use but also from the memory of the Germans, let us consider this more recent custom, observed for many years, to be the ancient one. Let us follow the religious institutions of our ancestors, handed down to us, which the consensus of the faithful has approved. And thereafter, let us take delight in the most diligent writings of the most learned historians (which is our only refuge), and not be curious as to what others may say.