Works of Constantine the African, Vol. II

that is, customs. When they are composed in comparison to the simple elements, they are considered similia membra similar parts, i.e., homogeneous tissues. Therefore, they are rightly called intermediates. It is not, however, our intention to treat of anything other than the universal and primary elements. Through their mixtures and transitions into the nature of the body that is thereby formed, every body—animated or inanimate—is composed, which is subjected to construction and destruction. This can be proven by four causes. The first is because they are simple; the second is because certain bodies are found to be similar to them; the third is from construction; the fourth is from destruction. For while all bodies placed under the lunar circle appear to be mixed and dissimilar to one another, even if some appear unmixed and similar, they are nevertheless proven by the intellect to be mixed and dissimilar elements, and by sense and reality itself they are found to be simple and similar. Whence they are worthily called elements. Certain bodies seem to be similar to each other; for instance, in animals we find bones that are hard and solid, and thus they are similar to earth; we find humors that are liquid and soft, and thus similar to water. They also find that spirit is to be likened to air. By touch, we discern heat similar to fire. Nevertheless, none of these is similar to the other. And if it is fashioned from the mixtures of these, it is proven by construction, because every animated or inanimate body is fashioned from them, as we see in things proceeding from the earth. For a seed cast into the earth, if it does not have the sun or air, perishes without emerging from the earth. But if the four elements moderate themselves for it, the seed increases. Animals also, because they do not subsist without the products of the earth, it is certain that they are made from the four elements. The bodies of metals and stones also, even if it is not apparent to the ignorant, are nonetheless fashioned from these four. It is confirmed by destruction, because whatever is destroyed must of necessity return to these four. For in dying animals, the heat first lost must of necessity return to fire, the spirit to air, the humors to water, and the flesh and bones to earth. Similarly in trees. Therefore, the elements are never wholly destroyed, because when those things which are fashioned from them are destroyed, they return bit by bit to their own principle, and for this reason, it is worthy to call them elements. Philosophers have disagreed much about these elements. For some say all bodies are made from one element. And these indeed differ among themselves. For some say only atomos indivisible particles is that one element. Others say fire alone, others air, others water, others earth. But Hippocrates sufficiently countered their error in the book which he wrote concerning human nature. For he said it is necessary that nothing being constructed be made from one part. For how could the same thing generate something different from itself without the mixing of different things? For if grain seed is taken, unless it is mixed with earth and water, it is seen to generate nothing. Similarly, in animals, nothing is generated without the mixing of male and female. Also Hippocrates in the same: If a man, he says, were made from one element, he would not be subject to any original: "subderetur"