Ten Books on Architecture by Vitruvius

natural disposition. As Aristotle says: to rule is divine; those who are too base and needy do not know how to be governed. Furthermore, those who wish to dominate others must possess that natural grace, given freely. And these have been nicknamed the Heroes, earthly gods, blessed and delicate. And although it is not permitted by legal constitution for an Emperor, King, or other prince to introduce himself into dangers due to his natural or given dignity, it was nevertheless established by the Roman laws: that no one could merit a triumph unless, as Valerius Maximus narrates in the second book, saying: Some Emperors desired that wars be decreed to them, against which a law was enacted providing that no one should triumph unless he had slain five thousand of the enemy in one battle; and thus they were recognized as being of most brave or invincible virtue. For properly, virtus virtue/valor is said to come from viro forti strong man, which signifies fortitudinem fortitude, either because it is the peculiar property of a man, or because he is called a vir fortis strong man. Virgil says: "Then shame inflames his strength and conscious virtue." And therefore, since virtue is that which conquers vices and dominates them, even if it is hated by the wicked, it remains invincible; this virtue needs no private praise but carries its own face. But because it would be too long to narrate in order in what way the triumph was given and made to the most brave and victorious Emperors and great Dukes of the armed armies, you shall read Roberto Valturio in De re militari On Military Affairs in book 12, chapters 5 and 6, and in many places you will read miraculous things of their auspiciousness, especially those that regarded your movement of the face and above all the eyelids, because they feared your divine spirit. Whence Propertius says: primas in orbe deos fecit timor fear first made gods in the world; that is, as men recognized in the world that there were principal men, just like the gods, then they began to fear. And so, because that Emperor M. Octavian, or Augustus, had cast—that is, driven out—all his enemies and those of the Roman Empire from their lands and houses, here and there; for such effects the citizens who desired peace and a good life glorified themselves, and gave him the triumph: that is, the highest honor in the world to whom I refer you, who have written.

¶ And the Senate, that is, the congregation of the nobles, who rendered account to all the universal subjects of the Roman Empire: for this reason, seeing that they had such a glorious Emperor, well-fortunate and gifted with prudent counsel, the Senate itself was liberated from the fear of the enemies. Then that Emperor governed them with his most ample thoughts and counsels.

¶ And therefore, Vitruvius, seeing these great things, says that he did not have the boldness to manifest the writings that he had made on Architecture.

¶ And explicati explained/unfolded, that is, expounded, so that in such a way it could be clearly understood.

¶ Fearing that by interpellando interjecting/interrupting—Vitruvius rhetorically uses this verb or participle, demonstrating in what way it is appropriate to act when wishing to speak to a great prince: because, not being so familiar or accustomed to the prince, it is appropriate to speak through some agreeable person familiar to said prince, and this will be the one with whom, speaking, one intends to intercede, and who does not allow one to seem to seek an audience presumptuously, but maturely, even if he thinks to demonstrate something that might be agreeable to him.

¶ So that he would not immediately enter into the indignation of the soul of that prince.

¶ Therefore Vitruvius says interpellans interceding; for to interpellare intercede also means to interrogate, or to call and speak among others, and to pour out prayers for another. And therefore it is appropriate to know how to seize the time, apt and convenient, when wishing to speak or to obtain some favor, especially with a great prince or another person.

¶ But when I adverted, not only to the common life of all; in this clause, it is understood not only that an Emperor or prince ought to have care for the universal subjects under his power, but also for the animals that render utility to our human life, just as it is also a custom to appoint officials for the fields, and also for the hunting of animals, quadrupeds, birds, and even aquatic ones. And therefore Vitruvius has said the common life of all, that is, that they live according to the common custom through different provinces and regions of the world and municipal institutions, just as it was then the

But when I adverted, not only to the common life of all, to have care, and the constitution of the republic, but also of the opportunity of particular, public, and private buildings. So that the City, through you, might not only be augmented in provinces, but also so that the Majesty of the Empire might have the excellent authorities of public buildings; I have thought not to neglect to manifest to you as soon as possible these things.

other constitution of living of the Roman republic, of which, above oneself, it was appropriate for the Emperor, more than any other magistrate, neither Consul nor Praetor nor Aedile, to have the highest and most diligent care.

¶ Constitutione Constitution signifies a law or edict for that which a King or Emperor establishes in writing or otherwise says or does; similarly, constitutions joined by the Supreme Pontiff and by some ecclesiastical and religious congregations, etc.

¶ But also of the opportunity of public and private buildings: Nam opportunitas est quaedam optata comoditas For opportunity is a certain desired convenience; Vitruvius here demonstrates, since it is a necessary thing for an Emperor to have care for public and private buildings to preserve the people and persons of every sort. Which might be the public and private buildings, that Vitruvius will show in these his volumes; and which will be the moeniane walls/fortifications, the enclosures of the towns and Cities. Of these public ones he will treat up to the sixth book; after that, of the private and common ones, whence otherwise in the present place we will not explain them.

¶ So that the city, that is, Rome, of which Dionysius of Halicarnassus writes amply, how it was its origin, which then by excellence is named ciuitas city (of citizens) or urbs city (walled). But how these nominations differ, thus it must be explained: For urbs city is said from the urvo curve of the plow, which the ancients, by Etruscan rite, with joined oxen—a bull and a cow—in the inner plow, would drive in a circle the furrow, within which they would build the city. They did this for the sake of religion on an auspicious day, so that the city would be fortified with a ditch and a wall. And the place from where they had dug the earth they called the ditch, and the wall was made inside. And these urban buildings, which are called cities or towns, were for living in quiet liberty and without any Prince and lord, just as at present we can see many republics in our Italy, such as the Venetians, Florentines, and other peoples who live in liberty. For the ancients lived separately in these buildings for the sake of friendship, which was innate and joined between many men scattered about. Therefore, so that they might not suffer damages from some enemies or rapacious wild beasts and serpents, they built walls in which they first protected themselves with their riches, as we will say in its place. And although the city was later by excellence called Rome, through the four divisions made, nevertheless Varro said urbs city comes from the towns (oppida) which he previously circled with the plowman, or even from the circle (orbe), or from the curve (urvo) the city is said to be. But however that may be, Valerius Maximus in the seventh book, when he spoke of Solon, puts it thus: The same, when he saw one of his friends grieving gravely, led him into the citadel and urged him to cast his eyes around the parts of the buildings below. Which as he noticed done, "Think now with yourself," he said, "how many sorrows have been under these roofs, and once were, and are today, and in the following centuries are to have: and cease to weep for the inconveniences of mortals as if they were your own." With which consolation he demonstrated that cities are the specters of human miseries. Concerning the city, enough. Now what a ciuitas city/citizenship is must be said.

¶ For a ciuitas is a multitude of men joined by the bond of society, living concordantly by the same law. Therefore, it is not the buildings that seem to make cities, but the inhabitants, and the customs, and the arts; thus it seems a city is made. Therefore it is not a urbs city (physical), but a unity of political men. And by what way the cities, the citizens, the suburbanites, and other inhabitants of the lands and surrounding places should be [governed], this you will see not only from the public laws but from Aristotle in the books of Ethics, of Economics, and of Politics.

¶ Through you might not only be augmented in provinces. Provinces here show the mode of the dilatations and long distances and division of the world through the highest dominion, and properly of the major divisions of the entire body of the earth and rivers and mountains and sea of the whole world. And therefore provinces properly are the three principal parts of the world, just as Suetonius has said in the description of Caesar the dictator, chapter 4, when he said: Mithridates devastating the neighboring regions, so that he would not appear to be in danger of the allies, from Rhodes, where he had headed, he crossed into Asia; with auxiliaries having been collected, and the prefect of the King having been expelled from the province, he retained the wavering and doubtful cities in fidelity.

¶ I also saw in the same Suetonius where he speaks of the ordination of Italy made by him in the life of Augustus; then it follows of the ordination of other provinces. Item of the order of Kingdoms, after of the order of legions and soldiers, etc. But some, such as the religious, have since wanted that provinces be contained in smaller distances, just as it is for Italy: the Province of Lombardy, and of Genoa, and that of Tuscany, and of the Romagna or March of Ancona. But see what is written also by Pliny in the third book of Natural History, of Gallia Narbonensis, to which I refer you so as not to be long in dividing the habitations of the entire universal orb of the earth, which contains so many cities, towns, villages, seas, islands, rivers.