Claudius Ptolemaeus; Giovanni Antonio Magini — Geographiae universae tum veteris, tum novae (1597)

Among some, however, cities original: "urbes" are understood to be the larger and more distinguished towns, such as Rome, Carthage, and others. Now, however, among Christians, those are called cities original: "vrbes" which have their own Bishop, or Archbishop, or Patriarch; the rest are called towns. Furthermore, of cities, some are Metropolitan, which, as parents, generate other cities from themselves; there are, however, those who call that city a Metropolis which is the primary one of that Region or Province. Others are Colonies, which were founded by major cities in this manner, that is, when colonists were sent from them to inhabit them.

Emporium is a city or market town where peoples from many parts flock together for the sake of trade.

Quarter original: "Vicus" within a town or city is understood as a street containing a series of houses. But outside a town or city, a quarter is the same as a village, or as it is commonly called, a hamlet, and it consists of many houses enclosed by a wall.

Village original: "Pagus" is an aggregation of rustic houses which are enclosed by no walls.

Castle is a small quarter surrounded by walls.

Villa is properly understood as a house outside the city; sometimes, however, it is taken for a village or quarter.

State original: "Ciuitas" is properly a collected multitude of citizens and a society governed by customs, laws, and institutions. It is often taken for a town and city.

Hut original: "Tugurium" is a rustic dwelling covered with marsh reeds.

Mountain is the highest swelling of the earth, named from rising up, and almost all have their own particular names.

Hill is a lesser mountain, and as it were a small mount.

Valley is a level of earth enclosed between two mountains.

Dale original: "Conuallis" is a level of earth enclosed on every side by mountains or hills; so called, according to Varro, as if a hollowed valley.

Field is a large and ample space of flat earth.

Field original: "Ager" signifies a certain part of the city's territory which is privately possessed by someone; sometimes, however, it is taken for the territory of the city itself.

Territory is the space of earth around a city or town belonging to it, which is left for the colonists.

Spring is where water bubbles up from the earth.

River, or Stream, or Flood is water running continuously and perennially, which flows from some spring or lake.

Torrent is a river which is not formed from a spring or lake, but descends into valleys from rainwater or from the melting of snow, especially in winter, and dries up in summer.

Marsh is a quantity of water that is as if dead, which does not run off but is often dried up.

Pool original: "Stagnum" is that which has stagnant water at a temporary time, which is usually collected in winter but dries up in summer.

Lake is a deep place with perpetual waters born in the same spot, which has no exit into the air unless by means of some river; and this sometimes creates streams and rivers.

Mouth is the open access of rivers.

Utility of Geography.

A decorative drop cap 'Q' featuring intricate foliate and scroll-work patterns.NO one is ignorant of how useful and necessary Geography is: since there is no faculty to which this is not a great ornament, and to which it does not bring the greatest aid. First, therefore, History is so much in need of this knowledge that without it, it can offer the reader no fruit; for History is nothing other than a simple and sincere narration of those things that have happened. This narration is based primarily on two things, namely, time and the place where some success or event occurs. Therefore, a curious reader cannot draw the true meaning and understanding from History unless they have before their eyes some picture or geographical description, so that they may see the location of places of which mention is made in the History. For the same reason, this faculty is also very necessary for Theology, since Theology abounds in very many sacred histories, as can be seen in Genesis, in Exodus, and even in the Epistles of St. Paul, and in the Acts of the Apostles, where frequent mention is made of Egypt, the Red Sea, the desert of Arabia, and many cities and places of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Furthermore, how necessary it is for Philosophy, the volumes of Aristotle and Plato provide ample evidence, which in very many places would suffer from excessive obscurity without the understanding of Geography. And Strabo indeed, in the first book of his Geography, reports that the first to write about this faculty were the most famous Philosophers. Geography also contributes greatly to Medicine, by asserting the distinction of climates and by showing the variety of places, the knowledge of which aids in understanding the varieties and qualities of animals and plants. That it is supremely useful for legal discipline, I believe to be evident from the fact that the place of our actions is the earth and the sea where we dwell, as Strabo says: if, therefore, Geography did not distinguish continents, seas, states, and the regions of princes and private individuals, by diligently noting their boundaries and limits, everything would be confused, nor could the princes themselves know where their domains extend: but contentions, lawsuits, and wars would continually arise between them, which would also happen among private individuals. Likewise, Geography is so necessary for Astrology for the knowledge of celestial motions that it cannot be understood without it; since all celestial appearances are referred to us who, according to the varying position of the celestial sphere, dwell in different places of the earth: where such a great variety of days and nights occurs, and such a difference in the Rising and Setting of the stars. I shall not overlook that military discipline, the art of navigation, and trade are maimed and imperfect without the knowledge of Geography. As to what delight this brings to the curious for understanding the variety of places, peoples, animals, birds, herbs, and stones, and the history of many other wonderful things which are observed in many places, I leave it to any intelligent person to judge, since many are found who, captured by curiosity, might traverse different places, but are kept at home, content only with the history of things, provided they combine it with geographical knowledge. Finally, this geographical faculty is so necessary to leading men that they themselves have founded it, sending learned men throughout the whole world to explore the variety of regions and places.