PLATO'S DEFINITIONS

...oligarchic, when magistrates are chosen based on wealth. For the rich are fewer than the poor. Kingship is divided into two branches: one according to law, the other according to lineage. The Carthaginian kingdom exists according to law, for it is a civil state. But that of the Spartans and Macedonians is according to lineage, for they have a certain succession of the kingdom through birth. Tyranny is said to be when citizens are ruled by someone through impulse and forced by violence.

Of Justice, there are three types: one concerns the gods, another concerns humans, and the third concerns the deceased. For those who perform sacrifices according to the laws and take care of sacred things are religious toward the gods and pious; those who return loans and deposits are just toward humans; and those who pay the due rites to those who have finished their lives fulfill that third part of justice.

Likewise, of Discipline original: Disciplina; used here to mean a branch of knowledge or science, similar to the Greek episteme there are three species: one consists in action and is called practical; another consists in the outcome of a work and is called productive original: poeticen; from the Greek poiesis, meaning to make or create a physical object; the third is devoted to speculation and is called speculative The Latin text here uses rhetoricen (rhetorical), but the parallel Greek text correctly identifies this category as theoretikon (speculative/theoretical), which fits the examples of geometry and astrology that follow.. For it is certain that the building of houses and ships belongs to that productive branch, for from them we see a finished work. But politics, flute-playing, the striking of the lyre, and other such things fall under the practical branch. For once the act is finished, nothing remains that is visible to the eyes; rather, all the power is in the act itself. Thus, one person plays the flute, another the strings, and another governs the state. Furthermore, geometry, harmony, and astrology fall under understanding and serve speculation alone. For they neither act nor produce anything, but geometry contemplates how lines relate to one another, the musician judges sounds by reason, and the astrologer the stars and the heavens.

Of Medicine, there are likewise five species: one is called pharmaceutical, which assists diseases with a medicinal potion; another is surgical, which cures by cutting and burning; a third, which wards off sickness solely through the reasoning and order of lifestyle, is called dietetic; a fourth, which assists the sick through swift discernment of diseases, is called nosognomical original: νοσογνωμικὴν; the skill of recognizing or diagnosing the specific nature of a disease; a fifth is called auxiliary, because it immediately frees one from pains with vigorous help.

Of Law, there is likewise a twin distribution: one is written, the other is unwritten. The former is civil law, by which we manage the state. That which exists without writing arises from nature and custom, such as the fact that one ought not to walk naked in the marketplace or wear women’s clothing, which is prohibited by no written law. For the natural law alone, without writing, forbids things of this sort.

He divides Speech or oratory into five parts. For there is one kind used in public assemblies by those who govern the state, and this is called political. Another is used by orators in demonstration, while they either praise or blame, or accuse someone; this is the rhetorical kind. Third is that by which private individuals talk among themselves, called private. Fourth is the kind where those who ask and answer debate questions concisely; this is called dialectic. Fifth is that which craftsmen use while discussing their own art; it is called technical.

Music is cut into three parts: one consists of the voice alone, such as singing; another of the voice and hand together, such as singing with the lyre;

...to lead the city. An oligarchy is when the offices are chosen from property assessments. For the wealthy are fewer than the poor. Of kingship, one is according to law, the other according to lineage. That in Carthage is according to law (for it is political), but that in Sparta and Macedonia is according to lineage (for they establish the kingship from a certain family). Tyranny is that in which people are ruled by someone through deception or force. Therefore, of government, there is democracy, aristocracy, oligarchy, kingship, and tyranny.

Of justice, there are three forms. For one part of it concerns the gods; another concerns humans; another concerns the departed. For those who sacrifice according to the laws and take care of the temples are clearly pious toward the gods. Those who return loans and deposits act justly toward humans. Those who take care of monuments original: μνημείων; referring to tombs or memorial rites are clearly just toward the departed. Therefore, of justice, one is toward the gods, another toward humans, and another toward the departed.

Of knowledge original: ἐπιστήμης (epistemes); often translated as science or systematic knowledge, there are three forms: one is practical, another is productive, and another is speculative. Building and shipbuilding are productive; for one can see their finished work. Politics, flute-playing, lyre-playing, and such things are practical; for there is no finished work of theirs to see, but they perform an action. For one plays the flute or the lyre, and another engages in politics. Geometry, harmony, and astrology are speculative. For they neither act nor produce anything. But the geometer observes how lines relate to one another; the harmonist, the sounds; the astrologer, the stars and the universe. Therefore, of knowledge, some are speculative, some practical, and some productive.

Of medicine, there are five forms: pharmaceutical, surgical, dietetic, diagnostic, and auxiliary. The pharmaceutical cures illnesses through drugs; the surgical heals through cutting and burning; the dietetic removes illnesses through lifestyle; the diagnostic through knowing the illness; the auxiliary, by providing help, immediately removes the pain. Therefore, of medicine, one is pharmaceutical, another surgical, another dietetic, another auxiliary, and another diagnostic.

There are two divisions of law: for one part of it is written, the other unwritten. That by which we conduct ourselves in cities is written; that which arises from custom is called unwritten. For example, not going naked into the marketplace, nor wearing women’s clothing; for no law forbids these things, but nonetheless we do not do them because they are forbidden by unwritten law. Therefore, of law, one is written, the other unwritten.

Speech is divided into five, of which one is that which those in politics say in the assemblies, which is called political. Another division of speech is that which orators write and look toward for display, for praises and blames and accusations. Such a form is rhetorical. A third division of speech is that which private individuals use to converse with one another; this manner is addressed as private. Another division of speech is that which those who ask and answer briefly use to converse—

which speech is called dialectic. A fifth division of speech is that which craftsmen use to converse about their own craft, which is called technical. Therefore, of speech, one is political, another rhetorical, another private, another dialectical, another technical.

Music is divided into three. For one is through the mouth alone, such as singing. Second, through the mouth and hands,