Aristotle's Problems

Why is it that the voice, which is a certain efflux of such a nature as to be carried upward, is heard more clearly from the upper parts toward the lower than from the lower toward the upper? Is it because the voice is a certain kind of air accompanied by moisture which, since it is heavy, sinks downward because of the moisture and does not rise—seeing that moisture by its own nature is carried downward—and for this reason it is heard more clearly from the lower parts? Or does this occur only in the voices of animals, to which it happens that there is moisture, while the same does not occur in other sounds? Just as, therefore, sight at a high and distant point, since it is above, when it has cast itself down, makes a reflection toward the upper part, but when climbing from the lower parts toward the upper, it is reflected downward; in the same way, the voice has a nature to be carried upward. When it is perfected by the opposing air, it cannot indeed thrust that air out, inasmuch as it is larger and heavier. But the air that has been moved, having been reflected, is propelled in the opposite direction downward. A similar thing happens regarding an echo; for an echo is a reflection of the voice in an opposing object.

Why is the voice of the drunkard more broken than that of the sober? Surely because he who is sated and full quickly breaks his voice. Evidence for this is that neither do choruses engage in exercise when rising from a meal, nor do actors; they do so only when they are fasting. But when they are full and drunk, they break their voices more, and not without reason.

Why do a pipe and a high-pitched voice simply seem to create a sense of solitude? Is it because a high-pitched voice travels far and is not very much diffused, as other voices are?

Why indeed does the voice seem higher-pitched to those at a great distance? Since high pitch consists in that which is carried swiftly, and that which is at a greater distance should be moved more slowly, is it because high pitch is not only in that which is moved swiftly, but also in that which produces less sound? For a smaller sound always reaches those at a greater distance, on account of the smallness of the moved air.

Why is the voice, which is a certain formed air and carried along, dissolved, yet that form often produces a multi-layered echo when it is struck and dashed against a solid, and is not dissolved, but clearly heard? Surely because it is a reverberation, not a dashing. This, moreover, brings about a likeness of the whole to the whole. For it is reverberated by the air, even that which is in a cavern, and not by the cavern itself.

Why are voices deeper in winter? Is it because the air is thicker? And when it is thicker, the motion is slower, so that the voice is deeper; or is it because the air permeates more slowly through narrow passages? Furthermore, the places around the throat are constricted by the quality of the cold and by the flow of phlegm.

¶ Why mustiness and stench.
Plautus in the Mostellaria: "Because, behold, a woman smells right when she smells of nothing." For those old women who frequently anoint themselves with ointments, toothless hags who hide the defects of the body with rouge—as soon as sweat has mingled with the ointments, they immediately smell just as when a cook mixes many juices together: you would not know what you are smelling, except for this one thing, that you understand it smells bad.

Why are those who are naturally hot sonorous in voice? Is it because it is necessary that there be much cold air in them? For heat draws in the breath and makes it greater; and sonority of voice occurs when it moves much air, while a high-pitched voice occurs when it is moved swiftly, and a deep voice when it is moved slowly.

Why do those who compress their breath hear better than those who are breathing in or breathing out? For this reason also, they prescribe for themselves in hunting and warn one another not to breathe. Is it because the seat of the senses travels upward when the veins are contracted and thinned, but they are sluggish when tending downward? Therefore, also, more is exhaled, or it is because the blood has departed, being diffused downward. Thus the upper parts are emptied; and once emptied, they hear more readily. Or is it because, by its own nature, the breath is a certain sound which, being excited during breathing, hinders hearing?

¶ Why do those who smell of mustiness and stench breathe out a foul odor when they have been anointed with fragrant ointment? Is it because in many cases this is made more pungent, or because many people when sweating smell heavily? For ointment is a heating thing; therefore, it draws out sweats.

Why do the armpits smell much more heavily than other places? Is it because they almost lack ventilation? A heavy odor is characteristic in these places because of the putrefaction which is generated there due to the lingering of moisture, which is neither moved away nor exercised.

Why do things of foul odor seem to smell least heavily to those full of food? Surely because it penetrates from the stomach through the palate to the faculty of smell, filling and occupying the sense; and thus, in the same way, the foul odor is no longer perceived. For at first all perceive it, but when it has reached them, it is no longer perceived, as if it were innate and adhering; and that which comes from without, being similar, is destroyed by that which is within.

Why do we smell less in winter and in places frozen with ice? Surely because the air is more immobile in the cold; or does no motion arrive, or is the fragrance not received on account of the difficulty of motion?

Why do nearby odors smell less well, both of spices and of flowers? Surely because, when near, terrestrial matter is raised up at the same time, and thus, being so mixed, it renders the power weaker; but if the odor arrives from a distance, it shows itself. For this reason also, crushed flowers lose their scent. Or is it because odor is a certain heat, and sweet-smelling things are hot? But heat is light, and thus the odor is produced at a distance.

Why do all things smell more when they are moved? Because they fill the air, whence the scent is immediately sent to the sense.

Why are those who are nauseated sometimes hungrier? Yet it would be right for the contrary to be the case, since satiety is nausea. Is it just as happens when excrement is passed, that the places which were filled before the nausea become empty?

Why is nausea at sea bilious, but otherwise phlegmatic? Surely because in other cases it is fatigue, but here it is with fear and tumult; and fear is a mover of the related intestines, but phlegm re...