Aristotle's Problems

...that they are not very vocal by their own nature, they also require more effort; that they are not vocal by the dictate of nature is certain even from this, that some pigs are found to be entirely devoid of voice.

Why do wild pigs give birth once, but domestic ones twice? Truly, it is because for the former the food is indeed simple and of a single herb, but for the latter it is manifold and varied; therefore they give birth more often. For the same reason, livestock give birth twice each year on account of their sumptuous diet.

Why do barrows have larger and more extended teeth—those they call chauliodontes—than boars? Truly, it is because females have larger ones than males, and barrows have transformed themselves into a feminine nature, having been made like females out of males.

Why do pigs have more prominent and protruding teeth in the manner of horns, which are called chauliodontes in the Greek language? Is it, as some say, because they do not fall out and, not being worn down, they grow—just as in humans who have them such that they do not change them, they turn out larger, as if nourished on milk and great in strength? They turn out so because they are not worn down. Or is it that, just as nature bestowed horns for the sake of strength and defense, so nature gave chauliodontes to pigs, since indeed all things have received some defense? For she armed some with horns, some with claws, and some with teeth. And of these, some are called karcharodonta because they are most strongly fortified with teeth; and so some have chauliodontes for this reason, breaking out on both sides. These are intermediate between horned animals and the karcharodonta, as if moving by degrees. This may be conjectured from the fact that chauliodontes serve in place of horns, and not because it happened that they were not replaced and for that reason grew huge, but for the sake of some purpose; for the things called elephants' teeth ought to be named horns rather than teeth.

Why do pigs bristle when they are provoked by dogs? Truly, it is because the body of those incited is seized, since they are driven by their spirits and for the sake of bringing aid to themselves. And then the hairs especially stand erect, unless it happens that they are weakened.

Why among livestock do those that are leanest put forth thinner hairs, but among pigs, the leaner they are, the thicker the bristles they produce? Truly, it is because pigs, since they are thick by their own nature, push through the pores; even when they have been fattened, for which reason the bristles also fall out, since they are less able to penetrate. Livestock, however, when they are fat, mostly consume the nourishment; or when they are not lean, they have more and thicker hairs; when they are lean, the hair is thin from meager nourishment, since there is more superfluity.

Why do pigs and dogs, when beaten, cry out more than oxen? Is it because these are otherwise most affected, or because they are more spirited animals than others? For the barking of wild pigs themselves and of dogs indicates this.

Why do horses urinate with difficulty? Truly, it is because whatever animals discharge dry dung copiously do so with moist discharge with difficulty, such as sheep and pigs. But horses do none of these things; and whatever animal discharges moist things easily discharges dry things with labor and difficulty; but the dog discharges both with difficulty.

Why in stables do they shear the mane of mares for mating and breeding with donkeys? Truly, so that being more humble they might endure the breeding of donkeys. For, being puffed up by their beauty, they are unwilling; but then, as if similar, they do not seem to be disgraced.

Why do horses not move their tails when they flee, but do so when they are being exercised and driven much? Truly, it is because the motion of the tail proceeds from the labor of the body or an affection of the soul; therefore those who are in a soft condition or soft in spirit move them when compelled, for they are driven by force to the riding; but noble ones do so least of all, but keep them immobile and extended. But in fleeing, all run of their own accord and go further in their spirits without fearing; accordingly, their tail is immobile and extended.

Why are those having a long and weak tail—unless they have it thick by nature—for the most part bad in spirit? Truly, it is because a tail made in this or that way is indicative; just as one that is straight and signifies nothing, or moved, or standing still—for these are signs of virtue, but those of vice. Therefore, when the nature is such that it has faulty spirits, immediately their seed is weak and short, and in its very beginning nature failed, as if she did not even wish to use it; or it did not have the form and position or the likeness which comes into use, as in the case of teeth, and that in females.

Why does that express something universal? Truly, because that which is under many is more common; for in dogs and pigs and lions, and in all pugnacious and spirited animals—and likewise in males more than in females—some have a straight tail, some a curled one, like male pigs, while the lion even beats himself with it. But the cause of all this is that there is a certain continuation from their own places of vision, in which the spirits also agree. Therefore, when those parts are incited and glowing hot, it penetrates even to the extremity, through which the affection is also demonstrated: in the bold, it is generally extended; but in the humble or fearful, it is curled back, as if accommodating itself to their spirits; and altogether, it has some power and aptitude either for harmony or for assault and voice from the same cause.

Why does the mare, although she is of shorter life than man, carry her young longer in the womb? This indeed happens for the reason that the horse...