Aristotle's Problems

...among other animals which are of longer life, it is much deficient and less effective, for it is a producer of only one offspring.

Why do male horses neigh more than females, while among sheep and goats the females bleat more, since in each there is its own voice? Truly, because of voices, some are indeed excited and spirited, while others are low. Therefore, males rather emit the excited ones, for they are more spirited; but females the lower ones, just as roosters crow, but hens cackle or cluck. Neighing, therefore, is a more spirited voice, while bleating is weaker; and accordingly, male horses emit the former, but female sheep and goats the latter.

Why, if someone pulls out one or two or a third hair from horses, do they suffer, but if many, they do not? Truly, because in that manner, through the pulling of a second or third hair, a plucking of the skin does not follow, and it excites pain; but when someone pulls them out together, no spasm or stiffness occurs because the skin follows.

Why do afflicted mares, because they have then been spayed, run not to the east or west, but to the north or to the south? Truly, because in such a state they ventilate themselves. For they run toward the wind, since heat is the cause of this pain and they therefore stand in need of cooling; accordingly, they rightly run toward the north and south, for the winds blow most and most often from here and there; for the South Wind and the North Wind always blow, while others blow quite rarely.

Why do hairs break out from scars in horses and donkeys, but in humans not at all? Is it because the scar hinders by its density, or because nourishment reaches them? In humans, therefore, it is entirely hindered on account of the weakness of the hair; but in horses it does not hinder, but corrupts; for this reason, white hairs also break out in them. Nor is it possible to conjecture from the multitude, even if it is otherwise with cattle.

Why, when the time for mating has arrived for both mares and she-donkeys—as both carry for a year and bear a single offspring—do they put the mare to coitus during that time, but the she-donkey after foaling? Truly, because horses are warm by nature, while donkeys are cold and become stiff; this we may conjecture even from the fact that donkeys are not born in Scythia. Since, therefore, the year has moved from this point, it is necessary for horses to beget at the same time; the spring is the measure, for it is not exceedingly cold but rather warm, and accordingly it suffers nothing on account of the cold; and the time of coitus is also considered by all to be that which is most suitable for nourishing the offspring.

Why does a horse die when it vomits? Whether it is because it is against nature or not, this is the cause: it is a sign of another greater matter; for it vomits because it is in a fatal condition, not that it dies because it vomits, or something similar to those who have vomited dung. For when horses are afflicted with the same ailments, in some cases it is wrenched from the belly against nature, because they are held by such diseases, but in others upwards.

Why do those suffering from a flux of the belly usually die when they are rubbed? Truly, because the flesh is glutinous and porous. This may be observed from the fact that it is most ready for sweat and altogether easily moved; therefore, there is a liquefaction of many parts arising from the commotion of the feet.

Why do old horses extend the lower lip? Truly, because as they age, nature relaxes itself; for the lower lip is larger and more corpulent, and it adheres less to the bone.

Why do horses urinate more quickly in soft places than in hard ones? Is it because they are splashed less? For they avoid that greatly; this may be conjectured from the fact that they spread their legs wide, and when they have been invited to sleep and bedding has been spread beneath them, they urinate because then no splashing follows. Or is even this not true? Yet the rest of the body seems rather to be the cause; for they do not relax the body when it is composed, just as it does not labor; but as if a difficulty of urine is produced—that is, they do it in the soft, whereas the solid, since it reverberates, responds in turn; hence the spreading of the legs and the leaning of the side in the process; and they do almost all these things so that they might urinate easily, since they are animals for whom it is naturally more difficult to pass urine than for others.

Why can horses and donkeys and beasts of burden in general least tolerate hunger, on which account when they have been shut in stables they gnaw the doors and thresholds and all manner of wood? Is it because they have many "small hunts" in the upper belly, like those who are searching—that is, because food is drawn in, which when they no longer have it, they suffer from the commotion and incitement of the intestines? It happens in almost the same way as to those who have slippery intestines.

Why do pregnant mares not carry horses more easily than mules, even though the mule is stronger? Perhaps it is truly on account of this very thing, just as with women, who carry males more heavily than females; for since the males are stronger, they exhaust the superfluities more; hence it happens that the mothers are weighed down and labor.

Why then, having been freed more easily from that burden, can they not carry mules continuously? For they certainly fail, as if enduring the repetition with difficulty. Truly, it is because they grow old, and bodies are worn away more quickly by stronger things—that is, they fear and cannot carry without interval that which is strong; just as the earth produces rich fruit, but when it has produced it, being freed from the trouble by a lighter offspring, it will bear mules more easily. As Alcimachus says, the Celts falsely claim that mares do not admit donkeys when they have grown old because they indignantly turn away from the smell due to lack of habit; wherefore, although they often seem to have conceived when covered, they are found to be empty.

Why does a mare miscarry most easily and quickly? Truly, because she carries a most vehement and very strong offspring; accordingly, when she labors through all things, she necessarily miscarries when force is imminent.

Why does the body most quickly yield and return? Is it because only flesh quickly both collapses and swells and rises...